1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to small molecule inhibitors of the IgE response to allergens that are useful in the treatment of allergy and/or asthma or any diseases where IgE is pathogenic. This invention also relates to small molecules that are proliferation inhibitors and thus they are useful as anticancer agents. This invention further relates to small molecules which suppress cytokines and leukocytes.
2. Description of the Related Art
Allergies and Asthma
An estimated 10 million persons in the United States have asthma, about 5% of the population. The estimated cost of asthma in the United States exceeds $6 billion. About 25% of patients with asthma who seek emergency care require hospitalization, and the largest single direct medical expenditure for asthma has been inpatient hospital services (emergency care), at a cost of greater than $1.6 billion. The cost for prescription medications, which increased 54% between 1985 and 1990, was close behind at $1.1 billion (Kelly, Pharmacotherapy 12:13S-21S (1997)).
According to the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, asthma accounts for 1% of all ambulatory care visits, and the disease continues to be a significant cause of missed school days in children. Despite improved understanding of the disease process and better drugs, asthma morbidity and mortality continue to rise in this country and worldwide (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1991, publication no. 91-3042). Thus, asthma constitutes a significant public health problem.
The pathophysiologic processes that attend the onset of an asthmatic episode can be broken down into essentially two phases, both marked by bronchoconstriction, that causes wheezing, chest tightness, and dyspnea. The first, early phase asthmatic response is triggered by allergens, irritants, or exercise. Allergens cross-link immunoglobulin E (IgE) molecules bound to receptors on mast cells, causing them to release a number of pre-formed inflammatory mediators, including histamine. Additional triggers include the osmotic changes in airway tissues following exercise or the inhalation of cold, dry air. The second, late phase response that follows is characterized by infiltration of activated eosinophils and other inflammatory cells into airway tissues, epithelial desquamonon, and by the presence of highly viscous mucus within the airways. The damage caused by this inflammatory response leaves the airways “primed” or sensitized, such that smaller triggers are required to elicit subsequent asthma symptoms.
A number of drugs are available for the palliative treatment of asthma; however, their efficacies vary markedly. Short-acting β2-adrenergic agonists, terbutaline and albuterol, long the mainstay of asthma treatment, act primarily during the early phase as bronchodilators. The newer long-acting β2-agonists, salmeterol and formoterol, may reduce the bronchoconstrictive component of the late response. However, because the β2-agonists do not possess significant antiinflammatory activity, they have no effect on bronchial hyperreactivity.
Numerous other drugs target specific aspects of the early or late asthmatic responses. For example, antihistamines, like loratadine, inhibit early histamine-mediated inflammatory responses. Some of the newer antihistamines, such as azelastine and ketotifen, may have both antiinflammatory and weak bronchodilatory effects, but they currently do not have any established efficacy in asthma treatment. Phosphodiesterase inhibitors, like theophylline/xanthines, may attenuate late inflammatory responses, but there is no evidence that these compounds decrease bronchial hyperreactivity. Anticholinergics, like ipratopium bromide, which are used in cases of acute asthma to inhibit severe bronchoconstriction, have no effect on early or late phase inflammation, no effect on bronchial hyperreactivity, and therefore, essentially no role in chronic therapy.
The corticosteroid drugs, like budesonide, are the most potent antiinflammatory agents. Inflammatory mediator release inhibitors, like cromolyn and nedocromil, act by stabilizing mast cells and thereby inhibiting the late phase inflammatory response to allergen. Thus, cromolyn and nedocromil, as well as the corticosteroids, all reduce bronchial hyperreactivity by minimizing the sensitizing effect of inflammatory damage to the airways. Unfortunately, these antiinflammatory agents do not produce bronchodilation.
Several new agents have been developed that inhibit specific aspects of asthmatic inflammation. For instance, leukotriene receptor antagonists (ICI-204, 219, accolate), specifically inhibit leukotriene-mediated actions. The leukotrienes have been implicated in the production of both airway inflammation and bronchoconstriction.
Thus, while numerous drugs are currently available for the treatment of asthma, these compounds are primarily palliative and/or have significant side effects. Consequently, new therapeutic approaches which target the underlying cause rather than the cascade of symptoms would be highly desirable. Asthma and allergy share a common dependence on IgE-mediated events. Indeed, it is known that excess IgE production is the underlying cause of allergies in general and allergic asthma in particular (Duplantier and Cheng, Ann. Rep. Med. Chem. 29:73-81 (1994)). Thus, compounds that lower IgE levels may be effective in treating the underlying cause of asthma and allergy.
None of the current therapies eliminate the excess circulating IgE. The hypothesis that lowering plasma IgE may reduce the allergic response, was confirmed by recent clinical results with chimeric anti-IgE antibody, CGP-51901, and recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody, rhuMAB-E25. Indeed, three companies, Tanox Biosystems, Inc., Genentech Inc. and Novartis AG are collaborating in the development of a humanized anti-IgE antibody (BioWorld® Today, Feb. 26, 1997, p. 2) which will treat allergy and asthma by neutralizing excess IgE. Tanox has already successfully tested the anti-IgE antibody, CGP-51901, which reduced the severity and duration of nasal symptoms of allergic rhinitis in a 155-patient Phase II trial (Scrip #2080, Nov. 24, 1995, p.26). Genentech recently disclosed positive results from a 536 patient phase-II/III trials of its recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody, rhuMAB-E25 (BioWorld® Today, Nov. 10, 1998, p. 1). The antibody, rhuMAB-E25, administered by injection (highest dose 300 mg every 2 to 4 weeks as needed) provided a 50% reduction in the number of days a patient required additional “rescue” medicines (antihistimines and decongestants), compared to placebo. More recently, Dr. Henry Milgrom et. al. of the National Jewish Medical and Research Center in Denver, Colo., published the clinical results of rhuMAB-25 in moderate to severe asthma patients (317 patients for 12 weeks, iv injection every two weeks) and concluded that this drug is “going to be a breakthrough” (New England Journal of Medicine, Dec. 23, 1999). A Biologics License Application (BLA) for this product has been submitted to the FDA in June, 2000 jointly by Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, Tanox Inc., and Genentech, Inc. The positive results from anti-IgE antibody trials suggest that therapeutic strategies aimed at IgE down-regulation may be effective.
Cancer and Hyperproliferation Disorders
Cellular proliferation is a normal process that is vital to the normal functioning of most biological processes. Cellular proliferation occurs in all living organisms and involves two main processes: nuclear division (mitosis), and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis). Because organisms are continually growing and replacing cells, cellular proliferation is essential to the vitality of the healthy cell. The disruption of normal cellular proliferation can result in a variety of disorders. For example, hyperproliferation of cells may cause psoriasis, thrombosis, atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, stroke, smooth muscle neoplasms, uterine fibroid or fibroma, and obliterative diseases of vascular grafts and transplanted organs. Abnormal cell proliferation is most commonly associated with tumor formation and cancer.
Cancer is a major disease and is one of the leading causes of mortality both in the United States and internationally. Indeed, cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States. According to the National Institute of Health, the overall annual cost for cancer is approximately $107 billion, which includes $37 billion for direct medical costs, $11 billion for indirect costs of lost productivity due to illness and $59 billion for indirect costs of lost productivity due to premature death. Not surprisingly, considerable efforts are underway to develop new treatments and preventative measures to combat this devastating illness.
Currently, cancer is primarily treated using a combination of surgery, radiation and chemotherapy. Chemotherapy involves the use of chemical agents to disrupt the replication and metabolism of cancerous cells. Chemotherapeutic agents which are currently being used to treat cancer can be classified into five main groups: natural products and their derivatives; anthacyclines; alkylating agents; antiproliferatives and hormonal agents.